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Introduction to APA StyleMost classes in psychology will require you to write your papers in APA style, which is a writing style described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (which was just released in its fifth edition). APA style describes rules for the preparation of manuscripts for writers and students in psychology. These rules cover areas such as the content and organization of a manuscript, writing style, references, and how to prepare a manuscript for publication. APA style breaks papers up into sections, which helps you to present information clearly and also allows readers to quickly find and process the information they need. Who Uses APA Style?APA style is also used in many other disciplines such as Sociology, Business, Economics, Nursing, Social Work, and Criminology. As a result, the Publication Manual is available at several libraries on the Purdue University campus (Consumer and Family Sciences Library; Engineering Library; Hicks Undergraduate Library; Humanities, Social Science, and Education Library; Pharmacy, Nursing, and Health Services Library; and Psychological Sciences Library) either in the reference section or on reserve. You can also purchase a copy of the manual at http://www.apastyle.org or at a local bookstore, although it is not necessary for most students to purchase the manual. The basic information that you will need to write your papers can be found at this website, or you can borrow the manual from the library. However, if your question is not addressed on this website, if you are writing a complex document such as a thesis or lengthy manuscript, or if you have detailed questions, you should refer to the manual; there is a lot more information in the manual than can be provided here. You may also wish to refer to http://www.apastyle.org to see what has changed from the 4th edition (primarily the format for citing electronic sources) Why Use APA Style?Abiding by the rules of APA style makes it easier for others to understand your writing. Your reader will be able to find what they are looking for, follow your writing more easily, and your communication will be more clearly understood. If you go on to publish your writing, the tasks of editors and publishers are simplified when everyone uses the same format. Using APA style also provides you with a model for thinking about psychological phenomena. How is APA Style is different from other styles of writing?APA style is unlike other forms of writing that encourage more creativity and variation in language. APA style often involves writing according to a "formula" of sorts. Once you learn the formula, you can master APA style. Adhering strictly to formatting rules, keeping sentence structure simple, and maintaining parallel structure when reporting study details and results helps to make your writing clear. For example: "The first hypothesis stated that marital conflict would predict behavior problems in school-aged children. The second hypothesis stated that the effect would be stronger for girls than for boys. The third hypothesis stated that older girls would be more affected by marital conflict than younger girls." is preferred to "It was predicted that marital conflict would predict behavior problems in school-aged children." For example: "The authors also had another interesting idea to investigate. They wanted to know whether marital conflict would predict behavior problems in children and they wanted to know if the effect was greater for girls than for boys, particularly when they examined two different age groups." These sentences could be broken up into shorter, simpler sentences. Can you think of some ways that you would break up the sentences? When you write in APA style, you rarely use first person voice ("I studied..."). This is rarely done in published journals and when it does occur, it's only done by very senior scholars. You should use the third person or passive voice constructions when writing in APA style ("The study showed...") unless you are co-authoring a paper with at least one other person, in which case you can use "we." ("Our findings included...") In general, you should foreground the research and not the researchers. You should also avoid use of the words "proof"
or "proves." One convention of scientific writing is that
no single study can prove a theory or hypothesis. Rather, experts look
for a convergence of the evidence from several studies. Instead of using
the words "proof" or "proves," you can can say:
Where do I get more help with APA style?It's always best to consult the Publication Manual first for any APA question. If you are using APA style for a class assignment, it's a good idea to consult your professor, advisor, TA, or other campus resources for help with using APA style -- they're the ones who can tell you how the style should apply in your particular case. For extraordinary questions that aren't covered clearly in the style manual or haven't been answered by your teacher or advisor, contact the Writing Lab for help at (765) 494-3723 or stop by Heavilon 226 to make an appointment. You can also email the OWL tutors at this form. General FormatGeneral format for papers written in APA style is covered in the first chapter of the Publication Manual, starting on page ten. What follows are some general guidelines for formatting. For more information about how to format a manuscript, see the many links in our additional resources section, available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/APA/resources.html#formatgeneral. What should my paper look like?
What sections should I include in my paper?There are standard sections that are used to organize your paper. Which sections you use will depend on your particular writing project. Your paper should include whatever sections are appropriate for that type of writing, each of which should begin on a separate page (except where noted). Standard sections for some of the more common types of papers are discussed below. If your paper type is not included in this list, follow the general guidelines, consult your teacher, or consult the Publication Manual. Literature ReviewGenerally, when you are asked to write a paper for a class, this is what your professor has in mind. A literature review is just your summary of what the scientific literature says about your specific topic or question. How long this should be and how many sources you will need will vary from course to course and instructor to instructor. A literature review contains the following sections:
Some instructors may also want you to write an abstract for a literature review, so be sure to check. Annotated bibliography writers can visit APA Format for Annotated Bibliographies at http://www.lesley.edu/library/guides/citation/apa_annotated.htmlfor information about writing annotated bibliographies in APA style. Experimental Report
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For more about how the elements of a title page are organized on the page, visit the sample title pages in our literature review and experimental report.
Sometimes you do not need to include an abstract in a paper; always check your assignment guidelines to make sure that you need to include one. In general, if you are submiting a manuscript for publication, or preparing a more formal report, you will need to include an abstract.
The abstract is a summary of your paper and is generally the first thing your reader will read after the title. It allows readers to get an idea of what you say in your paper, so they can decide if they want to read the entire paper. Therefore, this is a very important section because you want people to actually read what you spent so much time writing.
The abstract should contain a complete but concise summary
of your paper and should not contain more than 120 words. You should not
repeat your title in the abstract because this is redundant and takes
up precious space.
For a literature review, the main things you should include in your abstract are the problem under investigation (the purpose of the paper) and your conclusions about the problem based on your review of the literature.
For an experimental report, the main things you should include in your abstract are the problem under investigation (the purpose of the paper), the participants or subjects (number, type, age, sex), the method used, the main findings, and the implications of these findings.
See the APA sample experimental report at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/APA/interact/exp/index.html for an example of an abstract.
In addition to a title page and an abstract, the text of your paper should be broken into sections. For these sections, following sections should begin on the same page where the previous one left off, and not necessarily on a new page.
In this section, you are essentially providing background information on the topic. You should explain why the topic is important and give the reader an idea of where you are going in your paper (i.e., what aspects of the topic you will be focusing on). Then review the relevant literature. Please see the section on using sources in your paper for information on how to cite your sources and how to use quotations in your paper.
The introduction should be clearly organized and flow nicely. One way to do this is to use headings. Headings help the reader understand the paper’s organization and they show what topics are of equal importance. Look at the sample experimental report for an example of how headings can be used in the introduction. Headings can also be used in other sections of the paper.
Note: the introduction section should not be labeled "Introduction"; just use the title of your paper.
You should always assume that your reader is not an expert
on the topic; however, you can assume that your reader has some basic
knowledge of the topic. You should explain your ideas thoroughly and clearly.
Avoid the use of jargon wherever possible.
For the literature review, the "introduction" is the entire text of your paper. You should explain why the topic is important and give the reader an idea of where you are going in your paper (i.e., what aspects of the topic you will be focusing on). Then review the relevant literature, organizing it in a clear and easy to follow manner. For example, you could organize the review chronologically, in order of importance, or as it relates to different perspectives on an issue or to sides of a controversial problem.
You do not need to mention every study conducted on the topic; only the ones that are most important to what you want to say. You also do not need to provide a lot of detail about the procedures used in other studies. Most literature reviews only describe the main findings, relevant methodological issues, and/or major conclusions of other research.
After you have introduced your topic, reviewed the literature, and written a conclusion, you then need to include a reference list at the end of your paper, and you're finished with your literature review!
In the introduction to an experimental report, you do not need to mention every study conducted on the topic, only the ones that are most important to what you want to say. You also do not need to provide a lot of detail about the procedures used in other studies. Most introductions only describe the main findings, relevant methodological issues, and/or major conclusions of other research. Methodology is usually only described if you want to say that it is flawed or an inappropriate way to measure the phenomenon, or if you are using their methodology.
You should explainwhy the current information out there is not sufficient to explain the phenomenon and how you addressed the problem. State what your hypotheses were and what previous findings these hypotheses are based on, leading up to why the method you used is the best way to test these hypotheses. You should conclude this section by describing the goals of the study and a brief idea of the methods used. This allows your paper to flow nicely into the method section.
The Method section is where you describe what you did and how you conducted your study. This is very important because other researchers may use this information to try to replicate your study and see if they come up with the same results. If your description of your methodology is incomplete or poorly written then others will not be able to accurately replicate your study. The description of your methodology also allows others to critique how well designed the study is.
There are three main subsections in the Method section: Participants or Subjects, Apparatus, and Procedure.
In the Participants subsection, describe who your participants or subjects were. You should give the total number of subjects and their basic demographic information (e.g., age, sex, location, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status). You should also describe how the participants were selected and assigned to groups (if applicable), and how many subjects were in each group. Do not give information that would enable others to identify the participants (e.g., names) because you need to maintain confidentiality.
This subsection is usually found in experimental studies that involve the use of specific equipment in order in order to execute the study. Such studies are typically conducted by subfields in psychology that use the experimental method frequently (e.g., cognitive, psychobiology, social psychology). The Apparatus section is generally only used when the researcher is using special equipment. If only questionnaires are used, the section is called Measures Sometimes this section is combined into a "Measures and Procedure" section, but not always.
In the Apparatus subsection, you should describe the apparatus or materials used in the experiment. If you used questionnaires, give the name of the questionnaire and describe its subscales. Be sure to supply some sample questions. List any equipment used. Basic items, such as stopwatches, do not need to be described in detail, but specialized equipment that not everyone will be familiar with should be described in detail. You need to provide enough information so that readers will understand how your experiment was conducted and how they could replicate it.
In the Procedure subsection, you describe each step in how the research was conducted. You should summarize how participants were divided into groups, the instructions given to the participants, and essentially what the subject experienced while participating in your study.
For correlational studies or longitudinal studies, a separate subsection called "Measures" is added to the Procedure section of the paper. In this section, the authors list the names of the measures used to assess different variables (usually questionnaires) in the study. In describing the questionnaires, authors usually include information about the measure’s reliability and validity. The authors should cite the individual or individuals who created the measure. Also, a description of subscales and a few sample items are included to give the reader an idea about the measure’s content. For example: Depressive symptoms. Adolescent depressive symptoms were assessed by a 20-item questionnaire developed by Johnson (1980).
Many researchers combine the last two subsections into a Measures and Procedures subsection, especially if their measures or apparatus are not complicated. See the sample experimental report for an example of a Method section.
The Results section is where you summarize the data you collected and present the main findings (even those that are counter to your hypotheses). You should also explain what analyses were used (e.g., one-way ANOVA, t-test). The results section should be organized in some fashion. It should represent the way you have conceptualized your project. A common way to report results is to:
When reporting the findings of an inferential test, you need to follow a certain format. This format includes stating the one-letter abbreviation of the type of test, the degrees of freedom, the value of the test, and the probability that the score is due to random chance. An example of this would be F (1, 149) = 107.31, p<.001. Any p-value less than or equal to .05 is considered significant and you should be sure to point out to your reader that there was an effect. P-values greater than .05 are not significant and are considered uninterpretable.Do not mention individual scores except as an example; instead report means and standard deviations.
If you need to present your findings using figures or tables, see our sections on figures and tables for more help.It is not appropriate to discuss in this section what you think these findings mean. Save that for the Discussion section. See the sample experimental report for an example of a Results section.
The Discussion section is where you interpret and evaluate your findings. Your job here is to address the questions/issues raised in the introduction in light of the results. However, you should not be restating your results or points you have already made. You will want to organize your discussion section into three parts:
Start this section by stating whether or not the findings supported your hypothesis. You can also compare your findings to those of other researchers. If your findings do not support your hypothesis, provide a rationale for why you think this happened. This section also involves a return to literature to place your findings in context. Discuss how your study results fit in with other studies that have already been published. Are they similar or different? Discuss why you believe this to be the case and weave in relevant citations to bolster your case.
You should also acknowledge any limitations of your study that might prevent firm conclusions from being drawn from your results (e.g., flaws in design, or population studied), address alternative explanations for the findings, and provide suggestions for future research (especially suggestions to overcome any problems you had or limitations of your study).
You should end this section by discussing why the findings are important and how your findings can be applied to actual settings. Also, discuss how your study adds to the existing literature and emphasize your study’s strengths to leave the reader with a strong impression of your work. This might also involve attention to the implications of the study in terms of the "big picture." In other words, what do your findings mean in the real world? What can you conclude about the meaning of your findings?
Some researchers will have a combined Results and Discussion section. This is primarily used when the author is describing multiple experiments or both sections are very short.
See the sample experimental report for an example of a Discussion section.
Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text. For some examples of reference lists, see our sample literature review and experimental report.
In your reference list, you provide information about:
If you don't have complete information for a reference, include as much information as you do have when you create your reference list. For example, it's common for web pages to not have authors. This just means that you don't include an author, and instead start with the title of the work.
The APA has guidelines for how you should format this information; these guidelines are different for different kinds of references. Our basic rules and forms will help you understand the general guidelines, and our reference list examples will show you some sample sources. If you have questions about a particular form for a particular source, it's best to consult the Publication Manual and follow their specific reference. If you can't find a specific reference or example for your source, take the basic form that most closely resembles your type of source and use that as your model, making sure to include all the information that a reader would need to retrieve your work.
Your references should begin on a separate page from the text of the essay under the label References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. It should be double-spaced, just like the rest of your essay. If you would like to see a sample reference list in a paper, see our sample literature review and experimental report, or these links to an Sample APA Report (http://www.thewritesource.com/APA/APARESEARCH.HTM) and a APA Simulated Journal Article (http://www-distance.syr.edu/apa5th.html). We also have a list of reference examples in the workshop.
Formatting your reference list is covered in chapter four of the Publication Manual, which starts on page 215. What follows are some general guidelines for formatting your reference list.
Berndt, T. J. (1996). Exploring the effects of friendship quality on |
Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students' adjustment to |
Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., & Petty, R. E. (2000). |
Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial |
An article in a periodical (e.g., a journal, newspaper, or magazine)
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of periodical, volume number, pages. |
NOTE: For a magazine or newspaper article, you need to include specific publication dates (month and day, if applicable) as well as the year. For a journal article, you do not need to include the month or day of publication. See our examples below for more explanations.
NOTE:You need list only the volume number if the periodical uses continuous pagination throughout a particular volume. If each issue begins with page 1, then you should list the issue number as well: Title of Periodical, Volume number(Issue number), pages. Note that the issue number is not italicized. If the journal does not use volume numbers, use the month, season, or other designation within the year to designate the specific journal article.
A nonperiodical (e.g., book, report, brochure, or audiovisual media)
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher. |
NOTE: For "Location," you should always list the city, but you should also include the state if the city is unfamiliar or if the city could be confused with one in another state.
Part of a nonperiodical (e.g., a book chapter or an article in a collection)
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher. |
NOTE: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references.
Article in an Internet Periodical
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from http://Web address. |
Nonperiodical Internet Document (e.g., a Web page or report)
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Retrieved month date, year, from http://Web address. |
NOTE: When an Internet document is more than one Web page, provide a URL that links to the home page or entry page for the document. Also, if there isn't a date available for the document use (n.d.) for no date.
Part of Nonperiodical Internet Document
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. In Title of book or larger document (chapter or section number). Retrieved from http://Web address. |
For more about electronic sources, see the APA style web site's coverage of electronic references (http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html) or Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style (http://www.apastyle.org/faqs.html) from the APA web site, or visit the additional resources section of the workshop.
A Motion Picture or Video Tape
Producer, P. P. (Producer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor. |
If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).
A Television Broadcast or Television Series
Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast [Television broadcast or Television series]. City of origin: Studio or distributor. |
A Single Episode of a Television Series
Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). |
A music recording
Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if |
For more about citing audiovisual media, see pages 266-269 of the Publication Manual.
Want to see some samples and examples? Visit our pages on citing sources in your text, using quotations, and our reference list, as well as our additional resources section.
Appendixes allow you to include detailed information in your paper that
would be distracting in the main body of the paper. Examples of items
you might have in an appendix include mathematical proofs, lists of words,
the questionnaire used in the research, a detailed description of an apparatus
used in the research, etc.
Your paper may have more than one appendix. Usually, each distinct item
has it’s own appendix. If your paper only has one appendix, label
it "Appendix" (without quotes.) If there is more than one appendix,
label them "Appendix A," "Appendix B," etc. (without
quotes) in the order that each item appears in the paper. In the main
text, you should refer to the Appendixes by their labels.
The actual format of the appendix will vary depending on the content; therefore, there is no single format. In general, the content of an appendix should conform to the appropriate APA style rules for formatting text.
Because APA style uses parenthetical citations, you do not need to use footnotes or endnotes to cite your sources. The only reasons you need to use footnotes are for explanatory (content) notes or copyright permission. Content footnotes contain information that supplements the text, but would be distracting or inappropriate to include in the body of the paper. In other words, content footnotes provide important information that is a tangent to what you are discussing in your paper.
The footnote should only express one idea. If it is longer than a few sentences, then you should consider putting this information in an appendix. Most authors do not use footnotes because they tend to be distracting to the readers. If the information is important, authors find a way to incorporate it into the text itself or put it in an appendix.
If you are including a quote that is longer than 500 words or a table or figure in your paper that was originally published elsewhere, then you need to include a footnote that acknowledges that you have permission from the owner of the copyright to use the material.
In the text, place a superscript numeral immediately after the text about which you would like to include more information (e.g., Scientists examined the fossilized remains of the wooly-wooly yak.1) Number the notes consecutively in the order they appear in your paper.
At the end of the paper, create a separate page labeled Notes (centered at the top of the page) and add the note text. Technically, you write these footnotes as endnotes, but they will appear as footnotes in the published paper.
Below are examples of content notes.
1. See Blackmur (1995), especially chapters three and four, for an insightful
analysis of this extraordinary animal.
2. On the problems related to yaks, see Wollens (1989, pp. 120-135); for
a contrasting view, see Pyle (1992).
3. In a recent interview, she (Weller, 1998) reiterated this point even
more strongly: "I am an artist, not a yak!" (p. 124).
Tables enable you to show your data in an easy to read format. However, you do not need to present all of your data in tabular form. Tables are only necessary for large amounts of data that would be too complicated in the text. If you only need to present a few numbers, you should do so directly in the text, not in a table.
Each table should be identified by a number, in the order that they appear in the text (e.g., Table 1, Table 2, etc.). When using a table, you need to refer to the table in the text (e.g., "As shown in Table 1,…") and point out to the reader what they should be looking for in the table. Do not discuss every piece of data that is in the table or else there is no point in having the table. Only mention the most important pieces of information from the table.
The table should also make sense on its own. Be sure to explain all abbreviations except standard abbreviations such as M, SD, and df. Don’t forget to identify the unit of measurement.
APA style has a specific format for tables. Tables should appear at the end of your paper, after the reference list and after any Appendixes. Every table needs a unique title after its label. The title should be brief but clearly explain what is in the table.
See the sample experimental report for examples of tables.
A figure is any type of illustration that you include in your paper such as charts, graphs, pictures, diagrams, and drawings. Tables are not considered figures because a table is typeset by the publisher, not photographed. See the sample experimental report for examples of figures.
Many authors choose to use figures when they want to convey a pattern of results that would be difficult to see in a table. Figures are also used to supplement text. For example, if you are trying to describe the apparatus used in your experiment, including a picture of the apparatus will help the reader understand what you are trying to say.
Each figure should be identified by a number, in the order that they appear in the text (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). When using a figure, you need to refer to the figure in the text (e.g., "As shown in Figure 1,…") and point out to the reader what they should be looking for in the figure. You should only use a figure if it complements the text, but does not duplicate it. As with tables, you should not explain everything that is in the figure or else the figure is not necessary. Only mention the most important pieces of information from the figure.
Choose the type of figure (e.g., chart, graph, or illustration) that will best convey the point you are trying to get across. You do not have to draw the figure yourself. Feel free to let your computer generate it, especially if you want to include graphs and charts. Make sure that all elements of the figure are large enough to be legible.
Figures should appear at the end of your paper, after any tables. Each figure should have a caption. The caption will serve as the title of the figure and therefore should clearly and succinctly describe the figure. All figure captions should be typed together on a separate page (see [sample paper]). Each figure should appear on a separate piece of paper, but should not include a title or figure number. When ordering your figures, be sure to put the page(s) with the figure captions first and then make sure the figures are in numerical order.
APA style uses headings to help the reader easily understand the organization of your paper. These headings are arranged in a hierarchy, with the same heading levels applying to topics of equal importance. As with an outline, you should have more than one subsection heading within a section.
The way your headings look depends on how many levels of headings you have. To figure out how to format these different levels, first find the section of your paper that has the most levels. Most papers will only use two or three levels of headings. Four and five levels are typically used for papers describing multiple experiments. Then format the entire paper as indicated below.
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading, ending with a period, with following text starting on the same
line.
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading, ending with a period, with following text starting on the same line.
CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading, ending with a period, with following text starting on the same line.
Note: Since the formatting of headings is determined by the section that uses the greatest number of headings, each section may not need to use all of the levels. Sections that have fewer levels should still start with the highest level of heading.
Note: One section that slightly differs from the above format is the "Introduction" section. Since this section is not labeled "Introduction" and therefore, does not start with a heading, the first heading used within that section is assigned the highest level of heading (usually the Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading).
Please look at the sample experimental report for an example of actual headings in a paper.
Whenever you use other people’s words or ideas in your writing, you should cite that source of information. Whether you are summarizing, paraphrasing or quoting a work directly, you must give credit to the originator of the idea that you are using. When you use another person’s words directly, they must be enclosed in quotation marks, with the source cited (see the section on [quotations]). Failure to cite appropriately is the same as claiming those ideas or words as your own and is considered plagiarism.
When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper. Reference citations in text are covered on pages 207-214 of the Publication Manual.
Here are some basic rules for formatting citations in the body of your paper. For more information about these rules, see pages 94-99 and 207-209 of the Publication Manual. For information about formatting citations in your reference list, see our page on references.
Generally, it is best to put both the author and date in parentheses after you refer to information from that source (see example a). If you include this at the end of the sentence, be sure that the citation is before the period. If you directly refer to the author or date in the sentence, then you do not need to include that information in parentheses (see examples b and c). It is recommended to refer to the author’s name in the sentence itself only if that particular author is really important in what you are trying to say (e.g., you are describing their theory, your methodology is based on theirs). If you are just stating research findings, then you should try to put their name in parentheses so the reader’s attention is focused on the findings.
Examples for referring to another idea or study:
a. In a recent study of student performance (Jones, 1998), ... b. Jones (1998) compared student performance ... c. In 1998, Jones compared student performance ... |
If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference.
If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)
If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference. See our sections on quotations for more information about this.
If there is no author to cite, such as when you are citing a web page that lists no author, use an abbreviated version of the title of the page in quotation marks to substitute for the name of the author.
A similar study was done of students learning to format research |
If you are citing a work that has no author and no date, use the first few words from the title, then the abbreviation n.d. (for "no date"). For more information about referring to electronic sources or sources without authors and/or dates in text, see Citations in Text of Electronic Material (http://www.apastyle.org/electext.html), Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style (http://www.apastyle.org/faqs.html) from the APA web site, or our additional resources section.
In another study of students and research decisions, it was discovered |
Personal communications, such as e-mail messages to you, or private interviews that you conducted with another person, should be referred to in your in-text citations but NOT in Reference list examples. (For more information, see page 214 of the Publication Manual.) To cite a personal communication, provide initials and last name of the communicator, the words personal communication, plus an exact date in the body of your paper.
For example:
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002). |
For information about using direct quotations, see the next section of the workshop.
You should try to use your own words (citing appropriately) whenever possible. In scientific writing, it is not as necessary to use a previous researcher’s original words as it is in other types of writing. Your own ideas and integration of previous findings is more important. Therefore, you should use quotations sparingly, if at all.
Formatting short quotations is covered on pages 95-99 and 245-246 in the Publication Manual.
To indicate direct quotations of fewer than 40 words in your text, enclose the quotation within double quotation marks. Provide the author, year, and specific page citation in the text, and include a complete reference in the reference list. Punctuation marks, such as periods, commas, and semicolons, should appear after the parenthetical citation. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks if they are a part of the quotation but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of your text.
Examples:
She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why. |
According to Jones (1998), "Students often had dificulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199). |
Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers? |
If you are citing a work that has no author, no date, and no page numbers, use the first few words from the title, then the abbreviation n.d. (for "no date"), and then use paragraph numbers (if available) or simply leave out any reference to pages.
Example:
In another study of students and research decisions, it was discovered |
Formatting long quotations is covered on pages 117-118 and 292-293 in the Publication Manual.
Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after closing punctuation mark.
Example:
Jones's 1993 study found the following: Students often had difficulty using APA style,especially when it was |
If you are using a quotation that uses quotation marks as a short quotation, use single quotation marks to set off the material that was originally enclosed in quotation marks. If you are using a quotation that uses quotation marks in a block quote, use double quotation marks to set off the material that was originally in quotation marks.
For more about in-text references in general, see the University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center's page on citations (http://www.wisc.edu/writetest/Handbook/DocAPACitations.html) or visit the links in our additional resources section for more information.
Here are some examples of specific references. For basic rules, see our reference list page. For a sample reference list in context, see the reference page from our sample literature review or the sample master's thesis.
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association provides extensive examples covering a wide variety of potential sources on pages 239-281. Below are examples for some of the most commonly cited kinds of sources. If your particular source is not listed below, use the basic forms to determine the correct format, check the Publication Manual, or consult the APA style website (http://www.apastyle.org), especially their Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style (http://www.apastyle.org/faqs.html) and their coverage of electronic references (http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html). Our additional resources section also has some links to examples and resources.
Journal article, one author
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896. |
Journal article, three to six authors
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204. |
Journal article, more than six authors
Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44(3), 213-245. |
NOTE: The phrase et al. stands for "and others."
Work discussed in a secondary source
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608. |
NOTE: Give the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation:
In Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ... |
Magazine article, one author
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31. |
Book
Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. |
An article or chapter of a book
O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer. |
A government publication
National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. |
A brochure
Research and Training Center on Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for reporting and writing about people with disabilities (4th ed.) [Brochure]. Lawrence, KS: Author. |
A book or article with no author or editor named
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. |
New drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure. (1993, July 15). The Washington Post, p. A12. |
NOTE: For parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Merriam-Webster's, 1993) and ("New Drug," 1993).
A translated work and/or a republished work
Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1814) |
NOTE: When you cite this work in text, it should appear with both dates: Laplace (1814/1951).
A review of a book, film, television program, etc.
Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book The self-knower: A hero under control]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467. |
An entry in an encyclopedia
Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. |
A print journal or newspaper article retrieved from an online database
When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the database. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if they do not have access to the database from which you retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession number in parentheses at the end, but the APA manual says that this is not required. (For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic databases, see page 278 of the Publication Manual.)
Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L.,& Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3), 77-88. Retrieved February 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database. |
An online journal article
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8(4).Retrieved February 20, 2001, from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html |
Chapter or section of an online document
The Foundation for a Better World. (2000). Pollution and banana cream pie. In Great chefs cook with chlorofluorocarbons and carbon monoxide (Chap. 3). Retrieved July 13, 2001, from http://www.bamm.com/cream/pollution/bananas.htm |
NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the Web site.
Message posted to an online newsgroup, forum, or discussion group
Frook, B. D. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the cyberworld |
NOTE: If only the screen name is available for the author, then use the screen name; however, if the author provides a real name, use their real name instead. Be sure to provide the exact date of the posting. Follow the date with the subject line, the thread of the message (not in italics). Provide any identifiers in brackets after the title, as in other types of references.
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with international or national availability
Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really Big Disaster Movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures. |
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with limited availability
Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing Labs: |
A Television Broadcast
Important, I.M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The Nightly News Hour. [Television broadcast]. New York: Central Broadcasting Service. |
A Television Series
Bellisario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting Action Show. [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company. |
A Single Episode of a Television Series
Wendy, S. W. (Writer), & Martian, I.R. (Director). (1986). The rising angel and the falling ape. [Television series episode]. In D. Dude (Producer), Creatures and monsters. Los Angeles: Belarus Studios. |
A music recording
Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig Music Limited. |
This website has examples of some of the most common types of references that you will use, and the APA Publication Manual has even more. However, sometimes you will want to reference a source and cannot find an example for that specific type of source.
If that occurs, choose an example that seems to be the most like your source and use that format. Try to provide as much information as possible in the reference list so that readers can locate your source.
Below are listed some of the most common types of sources that students will come across that are not listed in the APA Publication Manual and what seems to be the best way to cite them. You may want to ask your instructor whether they have a preference in citing that type of source.
Handout from a conference
If you have gone to a conference and picked up a handout (or obtained a copy) of a paper or poster presentation and would like to use information from that handout, in section 4.16 (p. 260) the APA Publication Manual does describe how to reference this type of source. They refer to it as an "unpublished paper or presentation." The format is the same for posters and papers. Just make sure that you indicate whether your source is a poster or a paper.
Mooney, K. S., & Berndt, T. J. (2003, April). Conceptions of positive and negative features in romantic relationships and cross-sex friendships. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL. |
PowerPoint presentation slides
Whether the slides are from a conference presentation or a class lecture, they would probably fit best as "unpublished paper or presentation." You can use the format given for conference handouts. If the slides are from a class be sure to indicate the date, class, and university. When making reference to a particular slide in the text, refer to the slide's number so that readers can quickly find the relevant information.
Smith, A. B. (2003, March 4). Abnormal Behaviors. Presented at a PSY 235 lecture at Purdue University. |
Lecture Notes
The best approach to citing information from your own personal notes from a class lecture seems to be to consider it as a “personal communication” because it includes “unrecoverable data.” For this reason, personal communications are only cited within the text and are not included in the reference list.
For example, you might say:
Class Handout
Since a handout could be requested by a reader from the professor of the class, “unpublished paper or presentation” seems like the most similar type of reference. Your professor should be considered the author. Be sure to provide information about the class and university.
Smith, A. B. (2003, Spring). Abnomal Behavior in Children. PSY 235: Purdue University. |
Course Packet
Referencing information from a course packet really depends on the type of source within the course packet. The reference should be based on the specific source. If you are using information from a handout in the course packet, use the format suggested for “Class Handout.” If it is a journal article, it should be cited as a journal article. Don’t focus on the packet as a whole; focus on the individual source. Include as much information in the citation as you can, and leave out what you don't know.
While you should always be clear about the sex identity of your participants (if you conducted an experiment), so that gender differences are obvious, you should not use gender terms when they aren’t necessary. In other words, you should not use "he," "his" or "men" as generic terms applying to both sexes. Replacing "he" with "he or she," "she or he," "he/she," "(s)he," "s/he," or alternating between "he" and "she" are not recommended because they are awkward and can distract the reader from the point you are trying to make. The pronouns "he" or "she" inevitably cause the reader to think of only that gender, which may not be what you intend.
How do you avoid using "he"? There are actually several ways to do this:
For more about this, see the APA's discussions of removing bias in language (http://www.apastyle.org/styletips.html) and the OWL's handout on non-sexist language use (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_nonsex.html).
In general, you should call people what they prefer to be called, especially when dealing with race and ethnicity. However, you should avoid labeling whenever possible. When you use terms such as "the elderly" or "the amnesiacs," the people lose their individuality. One way to avoid this is to insert an adjective (e.g., "elderly people," "amnesic patients"). Another way is to mention the person first and follow this with a descriptive phrase (e.g., "people diagnosed with amnesia"), although it can be cumbersome to keep repeating phrases like this.
If you conducted an experiment, you can use labels to describe your participants by the measures you used to classify them, as long as the labels are not offensive. For example, if you had people take a test measuring their reaction times and you were interested in looking at the differences between people who had fast reaction times and those with slow reaction times, you could call the first group the "fast reaction time group" and the second the "slow reaction time group."
For more about appropriate presentation of and reference to people in your text, see the following resources from the APA Style Website:
It's always best to consult the Publication Manual first for any APA question. If you are using APA style for a class assignment, it's a good idea to consult your professor, advisor, TA, or other campus resources for help with using APA style -- they're the ones who can tell you how the style should apply in your particular case. For extraordinary questions that aren't covered clearly in the style manual or haven't been answered by your teacher or advisor, contact the Writing Lab for help at (765) 494-3723 or email by using this form.
Here are some other resources for using APA style and writing research papers that might also help answer your questions.
Here are some print resources for using APA style. Most of these books are probably available in your local library.
From the American Psychological Association:
From other publishers:
From the American Psychological Association:
Other online resources
Formatting your paper and writing in APA style
APA style templates and sample papers
Documenting and referencing sources
On Purdue's OWL:
Other online resources
Other citation styles
Purdue's OWL also
offers information about other citation methods and electronic sources.
We have the following handouts:
Here are some of the frequently asked questions about APA style that people have sent in to our online tutors or asked on our grammar hotline.
I have a question about using parenthetical citations. I know that I am supposed to use shortened version of the title on each article (web page), but several of them have same titles. What do I do?You need to somehow distinguish between the web pages in the parenthetical citations even if they have the same title. Usually, the author's last name can be used in addition to the shortened form of the title. If none of the web pages have authors, are the sponsors of the page different? If so, use that to distinguish between the pages. If not, are the update dates different? Try to find some way to distinguish the two.
Are magazine titles italicized or placed in quotation marks?Magazine titles are italicized. Articles from magazines are placed in quotation marks when they are referenced in the body of your work and left as-is when referenced in a reference list entry.
I'm quoting a source that was quoted in another source. How do I cite the source in my text and in my reference list?Give the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation:
In Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ... |
In the references list, cite the secondary source. For example, the secondary source for the source in the example above would be as follows:
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608. |
Format references to brochures in the same way that you would format references to entire books, but identify the publication as a brochure in brackets before the publication information. Here's an example of a brochure citation.
Research and Training Center on Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for reporting and writing about people with disabilities (4th ed.) [Brochure]. Lawrence, KS: Author. |
How do I cite a document I retrieved from ERIC?
You can find the APA ERIC citation format on page 257 of the APA Publication
Manual, 5th Edition. Generally, the citation form is the same as for
a printed source, but with the ERIC document number in parentheses at
the end. No URL is necessesary.
For example: [regular citation information here]. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED486790).
Here's what the APA Manual (5th ed.) says about personal communication (section 3.102): "Personal communications may be letters, memos, some electronic communications, telephone conversations, and the like. Because they do not provide recoverable data, personal communications are not included on the reference list. Cite personal communications in text only. Give the initials as well as the surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible." For example: N.E. Migan (personal communication, January 11, 2001)
How do I cite a radio program I listened to?Alter the television listing citation format to fit the radio program. Include the same information but substitute the radio station and name of the program for the TV info.
What is the standard APA style for a handout given by a speaker at a conference?If you have gone to a conference and picked up a handout (or obtained a copy) of a paper or poster presentation and would like to use information from that handout, in section 4.16 (p. 260) the APA Publication Manual does describe how to reference this type of source. They refer to it as an "unpublished paper or presentation." The format is the same for posters and papers. Just make sure that you indicate whether your source is a poster or a paper.
Mooney, K. S., & Berndt, T. J. (2003, April). Conceptions of positive and negative features in romantic relationships and cross-sex friendships. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL. |
How do I cite PowerPoint presentation slides?
Whether the slides are from a conference presentation or a class lecture, they would probably fit best as an "unpublished paper or presentation." You can use the format given for conference handouts. If the slides are from a class, be sure to indicate the date, class, and university. When making reference to a particular slide in the text of your work, refer to the slide's number in place of the page number so that readers can quickly find the relevant information.
Smith, A. B. (2003, March 4). Abnormal Behaviors. Presented at a PSY 235 lecture at Purdue University. |
How do I cite my lecture notes?
The best approach to citing information from your own personal notes from a class lecture seems to be to consider it as a “personal communication” because it includes “unrecoverable data.” For this reason, personal communications are only cited within the text and are not included in the reference list.
For example, you might say:
How do I cite a class handout?
Since a handout could be requested by a reader from the professor of the class, “unpublished paper or presentation” seems like the most similar type of reference. Your professor should be considered the author. Be sure to provide information about the class and university.
Smith, A. B. (2003, Spring). Abnomal Behavior in Children. PSY 235: Purdue University. |
How do I cite an article from a course packet?
Referencing information from a course packet really depends on the type of source within the course packet. The reference should be based on the specific source. If you are using information from a handout in the course packet, use the format suggested for “Class Handout.” If it is a journal article, it should be cited as a journal article. Don’t focus on the packet as a whole; focus on the individual source. Include as much information in the citation as you can, and leave out what you don't know.
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The following information must remain intact on every handout printed for distribution. This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/APA/print/wholeworkshop.html Copyright ©1995-2003 by OWL at Purdue
University and Purdue University. All rights reserved.
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