Citing Sources In Your Text

When to use citations

Whenever you use other people’s words or ideas in your writing, you should cite that source of information. Whether you are summarizing, paraphrasing or quoting a work directly, you must give credit to the originator of the idea that you are using. When you use another person’s words directly, they must be enclosed in quotation marks, with the source cited (see the section on [quotations]). Failure to cite appropriately is the same as claiming those ideas or words as your own and is considered plagiarism.

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper. Reference citations in text are covered on pages 207-214 of the Publication Manual.

Formatting citations

Here are some basic rules for formatting citations in the body of your paper. For more information about these rules, see pages 94-99 and 207-209 of the Publication Manual. For information about formatting citations in your reference list, see our page on references.

  • Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names.
  • If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source.
  • When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hypenated compound word.
  • After a colon or dash in a title, capitalize the first word.
  • Italicize the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, documentaries, or albums.
  • Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles from edited collections, television shows, and song titles.
  • If a work has two authors, cite both names every time the reference appears in your text. Join the authors' names with the word and.
  • If a work has three, four, or five authors, cite all of the authors the first time you refer to the work in your text. The next time you refer to the work, shorten the citation to the last name of the first author plus the words et al. Join the authors' names with the word and if you are referring to them in the text; join the authors' names with an ampersand (&) if you are referring to them in a parenthetical citation.
  • If a work has six authors (or more), cite only the last name of the first author plus the words et al.

How to use citations

Generally, it is best to put both the author and date in parentheses after you refer to information from that source (see example a). If you include this at the end of the sentence, be sure that the citation is before the period. If you directly refer to the author or date in the sentence, then you do not need to include that information in parentheses (see examples b and c). It is recommended to refer to the author’s name in the sentence itself only if that particular author is really important in what you are trying to say (e.g., you are describing their theory, your methodology is based on theirs). If you are just stating research findings, then you should try to put their name in parentheses so the reader’s attention is focused on the findings.

Examples for referring to another idea or study: 

a. In a recent study of student performance (Jones, 1998), ...
b. Jones (1998) compared student performance ...
c. In 1998, Jones compared student performance ...

If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference.

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference. See our sections on quotations for more information about this.

If there is no author to cite, such as when you are citing a web page that lists no author, use an abbreviated version of the title of the page in quotation marks to substitute for the name of the author. 

A similar study was done of students learning to format research


papers ("Using APA," 2001).

If you are citing a work that has no author and no date, use the first few words from the title, then the abbreviation n.d. (for "no date"). For more information about referring to electronic sources or sources without authors and/or dates in text, see Citations in Text of Electronic Material (http://www.apastyle.org/electext.html), Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style (http://www.apastyle.org/faqs.html) from the APA web site, or our additional resources section. 

In another study of students and research decisions, it was discovered


that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).

Personal communications, such as e-mail messages to you, or private interviews that you conducted with another person, should be referred to in your in-text citations but NOT in Reference list examples. (For more information, see page 214 of the Publication Manual.) To cite a personal communication, provide initials and last name of the communicator, the words personal communication, plus an exact date in the body of your paper.

For example: 

A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties



with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).

For information about using direct quotations, see the next section of the workshop.

Using Quotations

You should try to use your own words (citing appropriately) whenever possible. In scientific writing, it is not as necessary to use a previous researcher’s original words as it is in other types of writing. Your own ideas and integration of previous findings is more important. Therefore, you should use quotations sparingly, if at all.

Short Quotations

Formatting short quotations is covered on pages 95-99 and 245-246 in the Publication Manual.

To indicate direct quotations of fewer than 40 words in your text, enclose the quotation within double quotation marks. Provide the author, year, and specific page citation in the text, and include a complete reference in the reference list. Punctuation marks, such as periods, commas, and semicolons, should appear after the parenthetical citation. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks if they are a part of the quotation but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of your text.

Examples:

She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style," 

(Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.

 

According to Jones (1998), "Students often had dificulty using APA style, 

especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).
 


Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); 

what implications does this have for teachers?

If you are citing a work that has no author, no date, and no page numbers, use the first few words from the title, then the abbreviation n.d. (for "no date"), and then use paragraph numbers (if available) or simply leave out any reference to pages.

Example:

In another study of students and research decisions, it was discovered


that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).

Long Quotations (block quotes)

Formatting long quotations is covered on pages 117-118 and 292-293 in the Publication Manual.

Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after closing punctuation mark.

Example:

Jones's 1993 study found the following:          
Students often had difficulty using APA style,especially when it was



their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed



to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual



or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)

 

Choosing double or single quotation marks

If you are using a quotation that uses quotation marks as a short quotation, use single quotation marks to set off the material that was originally enclosed in quotation marks. If you are using a quotation that uses quotation marks in a block quote, use double quotation marks to set off the material that was originally in quotation marks.

For more about in-text references in general, see the University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center's page on citations (http://www.wisc.edu/writetest/Handbook/DocAPACitations.html) or visit the links in our additional resources section for more information.

Reference list examples

Here are some examples of specific references. For basic rules, see our reference list page. For a sample reference list in context, see the reference page from our sample literature review or the sample master's thesis.

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association provides extensive examples covering a wide variety of potential sources on pages 239-281. Below are examples for some of the most commonly cited kinds of sources. If your particular source is not listed below, use the basic forms to determine the correct format, check the Publication Manual, or consult the APA style website (http://www.apastyle.org), especially their Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style (http://www.apastyle.org/faqs.html) and their coverage of electronic references (http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html). Our additional resources section also has some links to examples and resources.

Journal article, one author

Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. 

     Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.

Journal article, three to six authors

Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). 

     There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The

     importance of  stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality 

     and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.

Journal article, more than six authors

Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P.,

    et al. (2001).  Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of

     Film and Writing,  44(3), 213-245.

NOTE: The phrase et al. stands for "and others."

Work discussed in a secondary source

Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of 

     reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing 

     approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608.

NOTE: Give the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation:

In Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, 


Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ...

Magazine article, one author

Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools.
			
    Time, 135, 28-31.

Book

Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing 

     manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: 

     American Psychological Association.

An article or chapter of a book

O'Neil,  J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: 

     Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. 

     Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). 

     New York: Springer.

A government publication

National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious 

     mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: 

     U.S. Government Printing Office.

A brochure

Research and Training Center on Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for 

     reporting and  writing about people with disabilities (4th ed.) 

     [Brochure].  Lawrence, KS: Author.

A book or article with no author or editor named

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). 

     Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
 


New drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure.
			
     (1993, July 15). The Washington Post, p. A12.

NOTE: For parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Merriam-Webster's, 1993) and ("New Drug," 1993).

A translated work and/or a republished work

Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities

    (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York:			

    Dover. (Original work  published 1814)

NOTE: When you cite this work in text, it should appear with both dates: Laplace (1814/1951).

A review of a book, film, television program, etc.

Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth  [Review 

     of the book The self-knower: A hero under control]. Contemporary 

     Psychology, 38, 466-467.

An entry in an encyclopedia

Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia 

     britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.

A print journal or newspaper article retrieved from an online database

When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the database. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if they do not have access to the database from which you retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession number in parentheses at the end, but the APA manual says that this is not required. (For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic databases, see page 278 of the Publication Manual.)

Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L.,& Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of 

     peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3), 77-88. Retrieved 

     February 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database.

An online journal article

Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of 


     human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8(4).Retrieved 

     February 20, 2001, from

     http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html

Chapter or section of an online document

The Foundation for a Better World. (2000). Pollution and banana


     cream pie. In Great chefs cook with chlorofluorocarbons

     and carbon monoxide (Chap. 3). Retrieved July 13, 2001, from

     http://www.bamm.com/cream/pollution/bananas.htm

NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the Web site.

Message posted to an online newsgroup, forum, or discussion group

Frook, B. D. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the cyberworld
			
     of toylandia [Msg 25].  Message posted to 

     http://groups.earthlink.com/forum/messages/00025.html

NOTE: If only the screen name is available for the author, then use the screen name; however, if the author provides a real name, use their real name instead. Be sure to provide the exact date of the posting. Follow the date with the subject line, the thread of the message (not in italics). Provide any identifiers in brackets after the title, as in other types of references.

A Motion Picture or Video Tape with international or national availability

Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really 

     Big Disaster Movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount 

     Pictures.

A Motion Picture or Video Tape with limited availability

Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing Labs:

      A History [Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue University 

      Pictures, 500 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907)

A Television Broadcast 

Important, I.M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The Nightly News Hour.

     [Television broadcast]. New York: Central Broadcasting Service.

A Television Series

Bellisario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting Action Show.

     [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company.

A Single Episode of a Television Series

Wendy, S. W. (Writer), & Martian, I.R. (Director). (1986). The rising 

     angel and the falling ape. [Television series episode]. In D. Dude 

     (Producer), Creatures and monsters. Los Angeles: Belarus Studios.

A music recording

Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John].
			
     On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig

     Music Limited.

What if I can’t find an example of my source?

This website has examples of some of the most common types of references that you will use, and the APA Publication Manual has even more. However, sometimes you will want to reference a source and cannot find an example for that specific type of source.

If that occurs, choose an example that seems to be the most like your source and use that format. Try to provide as much information as possible in the reference list so that readers can locate your source.

Below are listed some of the most common types of sources that students will come across that are not listed in the APA Publication Manual and what seems to be the best way to cite them. You may want to ask your instructor whether they have a preference in citing that type of source.

Handout from a conference

If you have gone to a conference and picked up a handout (or obtained a copy) of a paper or poster presentation and would like to use information from that handout, in section 4.16 (p. 260) the APA Publication Manual does describe how to reference this type of source. They refer to it as an "unpublished paper or presentation." The format is the same for posters and papers. Just make sure that you indicate whether your source is a poster or a paper. 

Mooney, K. S., & Berndt, T. J. (2003, April). Conceptions of positive 

     and negative features in romantic relationships and cross-sex 

     friendships. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of 

     the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL.

PowerPoint presentation slides

Whether the slides are from a conference presentation or a class lecture, they would probably fit best as an "unpublished paper or presentation." You can use the format given for conference handouts. If the slides are from a class, be sure to indicate the date, class, and university. When making reference to a particular slide in the text, refer to the slide's number so that readers can quickly find the relevant information. 

Smith, A. B. (2003, March 4). Abnormal Behaviors. 

     Presented at a PSY 235 lecture at Purdue University.

Lecture Notes

The best approach to citing information from your own personal notes from a class lecture seems to be to consider it as a “personal communication” because it includes “unrecoverable data.” For this reason, personal communications are only cited within the text and are not included in the reference list.

For example, you might say:

  • In a lecture on November 16, 2002, to a PSY 235 class, Professor Smith said …
  • … (A. B. Smith, PSY 235 lecture, November 16, 2002).

Class Handout

Since a handout could be requested by a reader from the professor of the class, “unpublished paper or presentation” seems like the most similar type of reference. Your professor should be considered the author. Be sure to provide information about the class and university.

Smith, A. B. (2003, Spring). Abnomal Behavior in Children. 

     PSY 235: Purdue University.

Course Packet

Referencing information from a course packet really depends on the type of source within the course packet. The reference should be based on the specific source. If you are using information from a handout in the course packet, use the format suggested for “Class Handout.” If it is a journal article, it should be cited as a journal article. Don’t focus on the packet as a whole; focus on the individual source. Include as much information in the citation as you can, and leave out what you don't know.

 

If your particular source is not listed, check the Publication Manual, or consult the APA style website (http://www.apastyle.org), especially their Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style (http://www.apastyle.org/faqs.html) and their coverage of electronic references (http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html). Our additional resources section also has some links to examples and resources. .

 

 

 

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